The first step in the Genealogical Proof Standard states that one must conduct a reasonably exhaustive search for all information that is or may be pertinent to the question for which you are seeking an answer. Has this been completed? Having only examined two records, we are far from conducting a reasonably exhaustive search. But how does one know when a reasonably exhaustive search has been achieved? Simply put, only experience in research will provide the insight to be sure. A well-crafted research plan, however, can help you to achieve this goal.

The first step in devising an effective research plan is to define a specific research problem. Many beginning genealogists jump into their research without ever clearly deciding what they would like to discover in their research. Of course, there is the vague notion of learning about ones forebears, but in order to effectively find an answer, one must first ask a question.

The following questions are examples of specific questions, relating to Robert S. Tarleton:

Who were Robert's parents?

When and where was Robert born?

When and where did Robert die?

The second step in creating a research plan involves research into the setting, i.e. the time and place. What were the laws during the time period that affected your ancestors? What records were created, and where are they now stored?

Continuing with Robert S. Tarleton as a case study, we will investigate Colleton Co., South Carolina, where Robert and his family lived. It is usually a good idea to start with a general research guide for the state. FamilySearch, sponsored by the Church of Latter-Day Saints, provides comprehensive research guides for all of the states and many other subjects. You can find a catalog of all of their research guides at the website here. There are four research guides for South Carolina: South Carolina Federal Census Population Schedules, 1790 to 1920, South Carolina Historical Background, South Carolina Research Outline, and South Carolina Statewide Indexes and Collections. These are also available as PDF files to be printed with ease.

The next stop will be the state archives. The South Carolina Department of Archives and History, according to its website, is custodian of the non-current archives of state and local government. It has evolved from two agencies the legislature created in the late-nineteenth century, the Public Record Commission of South Carolina, which was appointed in 1891 to obtain copies of South Carolina records in the British Public Records Office, and the South Carolina Historical Commission, which was created in 1894 to maintain these copies and was then given wider record-keeping duties in 1905. On the website, you will find the SC ArchCat, where you can search for records in the Archivess collection by keyword. Searching for the county name, Colleton County, brings forth a long list of county records available, including tax records, voter registrations, deeds, court records, etc.

There are also several great books to help provide some background information into the location. The Ancestry Red Book, Family Tree Resource Guide, and Evertons Handybook for Genealogists are great general resources, but the book Black Genesis by Dr. James Rose and Alice Eichholz, provides resources specific to African-American research for each state and many counties. There is no specific section for Colleton County, but the bibliography for the state does provide references to many books relating specifically to African-Americans in South Carolina.

You should also visit the website for the largest local university library, the local historical and genealogical societies, and the county USGenWeb site. Considering Colleton County, we would visit the following sites (for example):

South Carolina Genealogical Society Old St. Bartholomew Chapter

Colleton County Historical and Preservation Society

Colleton County, South Carolina History & Genealogy (SCGenWeb)

Now that you have defined a specific research focus, and learned more about the area and time period, you can bring the first steps together, in order to create your actual research plan. You will have to decide which available record groups are most likely to contain the information that you seek. If you are not sure what sort of information is contained in a certain record group, or do not know whether a record group will contain the information you seek, then you should err on the side of caution, and take a look at the records. This is part of the learning process, and will aid you in your future research plans. It is also a key part of conducting a reasonably exhaustive search.

The most effective research plan will consist of

(1) each repository that you will visit in the course of your research;

(2) each potentially relevant record group at each repository that you will search;

(3) what you will be searching for within each record group.

An easy way to record this information is by using four columns. The first three columns will contain the above aspects of your research plan; the last column will remain blank, so that you can record the results of each record search.

 Corroborating Evidence

The Constitution of the United States of America provided for a decennial census, in order to count the population. Beginning in 1790, a federal census was taken every ten years, but identified only free citizens; enslaved African-Americans were counted by number only. The 1870 census was the first to contain the names of all African-Americans, being the first after the abolition of slavery. The information contained in this record group was supposed to reflect the situation on Census Day, which was 1 June 1870, even though the survey may not have been conducted on that date.

We will examine the 1870 federal census record in order to corroborate the information contained within the Freedmans Bank record, and gather any additional information that it may contain.

Here is the entry for Robert S. Tarleton in the 1870 census:

[SOURCE: 1870 U. S. Census, Colleton Co., South Carolina, population schedule, Blake Township, Green Pond post office, pg. 17, pg. 9 [stamped], dwelling 163, family 183, Robert Tarleton household; digital image, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com : accessed 20 Oct 2009); citing NARA microfilm publication M593, roll 1492.]

First, we must consider this source on its own merits, just as we did previously with the Bank record.

Is this source Original or Derivative? This is an image copy of the original federal copy of the census enumeration.

Does the source contain Primary or Secondary Information? Unfortunately, the informant is not identified on any of the households enumerated in the federal census. While the ideal situation was for the enumerator to interview the head of household, it was common for other members of the household, or even neighbors, to provide the information. The determination of the information as primary or secondary is therefore impossible. For this reason, a federal census records accuracy can only be determined through corroboration by other sources.

The census record contains the following facts:

• The census taker, John K. Terry, visited the Tarleton household on 15 August 1870.
• Robert Tarleton was a 35-year-old mulatto farmer, living near the Green Pond post office in Blake Township, Colleton County, South Carolina. This age implies a birthdate of ca. 1835.
• Robert did not own any real estate, but owned personal property valued at $175. He was born in South Carolina.
• Robert could read and write.
• The other members of his household were Nanny, 30 years old (born ca. 1840), female mulatto; Nancy, 4 years old (born ca. 1866), female mulatto; and Joseph, 2 years old (born ca. 1868), male mulatto. No relationships are provided in this census. Also living with the family was one Daniel Barnwell, a 12-year-old male mulatto (born ca. 1858). All of these members of the household were reportedly born in South Carolina.
• Enumerated next to the Robert Tarleton household was the Joseph Tarleton household. Joseph Tarleton was a 63-year-old mulatto laborer, implying a birth date of ca. 1807. Living with Joseph Tarleton was one Sarah Tarleton, a 63-year-old black female, born ca. 1807. Both Joseph and Sarah were reportedly born in South Carolina. The census does not state a relationship between the two. Joseph did not own any real or personal property.
• Several dwellings after the Robert Tarleton household, one Betsey Scott, a 28-year-old female mulatto, lives in the household of one Benjamin Ganett[?], a 35-year-old black male.

We can now compare the facts from this record with those of the Freedmans Bank record:

Both records clearly agree on all facts, with the possible exception of Roberts occupation. His description as a farmer in the 1870 census as opposed to a preacher as in the 1871 Bank record can mean one of two things: either he became a preacher after the 1870 census visit, or he was both a farmer and a preacher. Being a preacher and a farmer were not necessarily mutually exclusive occupations during this time period and geographic area. In fact, it was quite common that nearly all men were considered farmers, as they fed their families from the sweat of their own brow.

The census record adds further details concerning the Roberts family, not contained in the Freedmans Bank record. On the other hand, the Bank record reports relationships not contained within the census record. The two records viewed together provide a portrait of Robert S. Tarleton and his family between 1870 and 1871.

Does the source contain Primary or Secondary Information? The signature at the bottom of the slip is (1) not a mark but an actual signature, and (2) not in the same hand as the rest of the handwriting, indicating that it was actually signed by Robert himself. Furthermore, Roberts occupation is listed as Preacher of AME Church. These two facts indicate that Robert was likely literate, and served as the informant of this record himself. This makes all of the information more or less primary.

The following facts are contained within this record:

• The record was created on 21 November 1871. On this date, Robert S. Tarleton lived in Combahee, near Green Pond, South Carolina.
• Robert S. Tarleton was born and raised (brought up) in South Santee, South Carolina.
• Robert S. Tarleton was aged 36 years, as of August 1871. This implies a birthdate of ca. August 1835.
• On 21 November 1871, Robert S. Tarleton was a preacher of an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church.
• On 21 November 1871, Robert S. Tarletons wife was named Nanny.
• Robert S. Tarleton had three children: Nancy, Joseph, and Sophia, who died in 1865. Their mother is not identified but may be his wife Nanny.
• Robert S. Tarletons parents were Joseph Tarleton and Sarah Tarleton, who died 29 July 1871.
• Robert S. Tarleton had two siblings: Dandy, who was sold, and Betsy Scott.
• James Maxwell came with Robert S. Tarleton, presumably to the bank at the time of this initial deposit.

The next step will be to determine an answer to the question: how reliable are these facts?

The most reliable facts in themselves are those most contemporary to the creation of this record: residence, occupation, wife, and children. We were able to determine that Robert S. Tarleton himself was the informant for this record, and this lends credibility to all of the remaining facts.

What we do not know is whether Roberts parents were still living at the time of the creation of this record. The identities of his parents as reported may be the only potentially questionable fact, if it cannot be proven that Robert knew his parents, due to the disruption of his family by slavery. But again, this record does not state whether Robert was ever enslaved, or born free. These questions will require additional research in other records to find an answer.

One important aspect of the Genealogical Proof Standard is its focus on the principles of sound record analysis. Using these principles, you will be able to distinguish between different types of record, information, and evidence and use these distinctions, together with other factors, to determine the reliability of your facts.

Types of record

There are two types of record, according to the Genealogical Proof Standard: original and derivative. These distinctions refer only to the form of the record, not to any of the information contained within it.

Before discussing the types of record, I would like to reiterate that the term record refers to any source, whether written or verbal. An interview with your grandmother is as much a source record as a marriage license or probate file.

An original record is, in short, a record that provides information directly from the source, without first appearing elsewhere in that form. For example, a tombstone, a newspaper obituary, and a death certificate are all original records. Closely akin to original records are image copies. Image copies include microfilmed books, photographs of tombstones, or digital census records. When the image is poor (as often occurs with printouts from older microfilmed records), the original record should be consulted. However, when the image is a high quality reproduction of the original, it can be used as a substitute for the original in many cases. [Please note that I do qualify this last statement. Even high quality image copies can have their flaws, and original records should be consulted as often as possible.]

A derivative record is a record that provides information that was originally produced elsewhere. For example, a published (or unpublished) book of abstracts, a transcribed list of gravestones, and an online census index are all derivative records.

Original records are inherently superior to derivative records due to the potential for error. Words can be misinterpreted, misspelled, or omitted, possibly changing the tone and information presented within the record.

One particularly negative example of this potential, bearing directly on African-American genealogists, is the tendency of abstracters and transcribers from previous generations to omit all mention of free persons of color or slaves in various record books. One simply cannot assume, when using a published book of record abstracts, that all records appear; some may have been omitted.

Not so long ago, original records, as described above, were called primary records, and derivative records were called secondary records. Records and information were seen as interchangeable. A distinction between these now exists.

Types of Information

Information refers to the content of a record.

Primary information is all content reported by a direct participant in, or eyewitness to, the event being reported.

Secondary information is all content reported by someone who was not a direct participant in, or eyewitness to, the event being reported.

A single record can contain both primary and secondary information. For example, modern death certificates contain the date and place of death, as well as the date and place of birth, and usually the parents names. In this case, the death information would be considered primary, and the birth information would be considered secondary. Note that this record is an original record, yet the information it provides varies in reliability. Only in rare cases will the informant to a death certificate have direct knowledge of the deceaseds birth.

Primary information is generally preferable to secondary information, but there are other factors which may affect this preference.

Identify the Informant

Key to determining whether information is primary or secondary is identifying the informant, or source of the information. In many records, the informant is identified by name (and often relationship), but in other records he/she may be unknown.

Once you know the informant, you must determine whether or not this person was likely to have had first-hand knowledge of the event being reported. This will help you qualify the information as primary or secondary.

When the informant is unknown, it is impossible to know whether the information is primary or secondary, and should thus be considered secondary at best.

You must evaluate the informants knowledge of the events being reported using four criteria: (1) how close in time and place to the event the record was created; (2) the level involvement of the informant; (3) the age and sanity of the informant, and the extent of his or her understanding of the events details and significance; and (4) any bias on the part of the informant that may have affected his or her account.

Types of Evidence

Records contain information, and this information then constitutes evidence. Evidence, in general, is how information relates to your research problem. The two kinds of evidence are direct and indirect.

A record contains direct evidence if it specifically states the answer to a specific question. A record contains indirect evidence if the answer, or a clue to the answer, is implied, rather than stated outright.

These concepts may be easier to understand using a pair of examples:

A marriage certificate contains direct evidence of the facts surrounding the marriage of a couple, including the date, place, and full names of both parties.

A birth certificate contains direct evidence of the facts surrounding the birth of a child, including the date, place, and names of both parents. The same birth certificate also contains indirect evidence of the marriage of the parents.

Neither direct evidence nor indirect evidence is inherently more accurate or reliable in searching for the true answer to your research question. For example, a pension application may contain direct evidence of the birth of a pensioner. However, the applicant may have moved his birth date backward in order to appear older (for financial gain), so another record that only provides indirect evidence of the fact may actually provide more accurate information.

The Genealogical Proof Standard provides a very thorough method to evaluating genealogical source records. By using these principles of analysis, you can obtain the highest level of accuracy in your research goals, and be able to solve almost every problem you encounter.

In the next article, we will explore these principles using a sample record from the Lowcountry.

FOR MORE INFORMATION: Almost all of the above principles have been derived from the following book, highly recommended to all genealogists:

More information can be found at the Board for Certification of Genealogists website: